Glossary

A proposed law introduced for debate and approval by a legislative body.

A smaller group of lawmakers that examines bills and decides which should move forward.

The lawmaker who introduces a bill.

A lawmaker who adds their name in support of a bill introduced by someone else.

A change or addition proposed to a bill during the legislative process.

A vote by the full chamber (House or Senate) on a bill or amendment.

A tactic used in the Senate to delay or block a vote by extending debate indefinitely.

A Senate procedure to end a filibuster, requiring 60 votes to pass.

The President's power to reject a bill passed by Congress. Congress can override a veto with a two-thirds majority in both chambers.

When Congress overturns a presidential veto by passing a bill with a two-thirds supermajority in both the House and Senate.

A bill that has been signed by the President and is now part of federal law.

A formal expression of opinion or decision by a legislative body. Simple resolutions affect only one chamber; joint resolutions require both.

A fast-track Senate procedure for budget-related legislation that requires only a simple majority, bypassing the filibuster.

The process where a committee reviews and amends a bill before voting to advance it to the full chamber.

When the President neither signs nor vetoes a bill within 10 days while Congress is adjourned, the bill does not become law.

The division of government authority into three branches — legislative, executive, and judicial — each with distinct roles and checks on the others.

The system where each branch of government can limit the power of the others to prevent any single branch from becoming too powerful.

A directive issued by the President that has the force of law, without requiring Congressional approval, but can be overturned by Congress or struck down by courts.

The body of 538 electors who formally elect the President and Vice President. Each state has electors equal to its number of Congressional representatives.

The sharing of power between a national (federal) government and state governments. The US Constitution defines which powers belong to each.

A legislature with two separate chambers. The US Congress is bicameral — the Senate and the House of Representatives.

A legislative body in which the executive (prime minister) is drawn from and accountable to the legislature, rather than elected separately. Used in the UK, Canada, India, and many others.

The head of government in a parliamentary system, typically the leader of the majority party or coalition. Usually accountable to parliament and can be removed by a vote of no confidence.

A form of government where the executive branch derives its democratic legitimacy from, and is held accountable to, the legislature. The UK, Canada, and India use this system.

A form of government where a directly elected president serves as both head of state and head of government, separate from the legislature. The US, Brazil, and Mexico use this system.

A hybrid system with both a president and a prime minister, where power is shared between them. France and Russia use this model.

A parliamentary vote declaring that the legislature no longer supports the government. If passed, it typically forces the prime minister to resign or call new elections.

The official representative of a country, such as a president, monarch, or governor-general. In many parliamentary systems, this role is ceremonial.

The leader responsible for day-to-day governance, such as a prime minister or president. In presidential systems, both roles are often held by the same person.

A system of government in which a monarch's powers are limited by a constitution. The monarch often serves a ceremonial role. Examples: UK, Sweden, Japan.

A form of government in which power rests with elected representatives and officials rather than a monarch. The US, France, and Brazil are republics.

Germany's federal parliament, the primary legislative body. Members are elected through a mixed proportional representation system.

The lower house of France's parliament, which holds primary legislative power. It can be dissolved by the president to call snap elections.

Japan's national legislature, consisting of the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors. It is the highest organ of state power under the Japanese constitution.

The lower house of India's parliament, whose members are directly elected by the people. The Prime Minister must command a majority in the Lok Sabha.

An electoral system where parties win seats in proportion to the share of votes they receive. Used in Germany, Israel, and most of Europe.

An electoral system where the candidate with the most votes wins, regardless of whether they have a majority. Used in the US, UK, and Canada.

An electoral method where voters rank candidates in order of preference. If no candidate wins a majority, the last-place candidate is eliminated and their votes redistributed.

An election within a political party to choose which candidate will represent that party in the general election.

A public election where all eligible voters choose candidates for government offices.

A second election held between the top candidates when no candidate achieves a required threshold (often 50%+) in the first round.

In the US, elections held at the midpoint of a presidential term — typically in November of even years — to fill House seats and some Senate seats.

An election called earlier than scheduled, often when a prime minister dissolves parliament to seek a fresh mandate from voters.

A government formed by two or more parties that together hold a majority in parliament. Common in countries with proportional representation.

A government where a single party holds more than half the seats in the legislature, allowing it to pass laws without relying on other parties.

A government where the ruling party holds less than half the seats in parliament. It must negotiate with other parties to pass legislation.

Gross Domestic Product — the total value of all goods and services produced in a country in a given period. A primary measure of economic size and growth.

A country's total GDP divided by its population. Used to compare average living standards and economic output across countries.

Government decisions about spending and taxation, used to influence the economy. A government may cut taxes or increase spending to stimulate growth.

Actions by a central bank (like the Federal Reserve) to control the money supply and interest rates, aiming to stabilize inflation and support employment.

Penalties imposed by one country or a group of countries on another, such as trade restrictions or asset freezes, to pressure a change in behavior.

A tax on imported goods, used to protect domestic industries or as a tool in trade negotiations.

A fee charged on fossil fuels based on their carbon content, intended to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by making carbon-intensive activities more expensive.

When a government spends more than it collects in revenue, financing the gap by borrowing. Used to stimulate the economy but increases national debt.

A composite measure of a country's development that combines life expectancy, education, and income per capita into a single score from 0 to 1.

An international organization founded in 1945 to promote international peace, security, and cooperation. Nearly every country in the world is a member.

A formal, legally binding agreement between two or more countries. Treaties must be ratified — approved through the domestic legal process — before taking effect.

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization — a military alliance of 32 North American and European countries committed to collective defense.

A political and economic union of 27 European countries that coordinates policy on trade, currency (the euro), and law across member states.

An agreement involving three or more countries, as opposed to bilateral (two-country) agreements. The Paris Agreement on climate change is a multilateral agreement.

The full authority a state has over its own territory and internal affairs, without interference from outside powers.

Actions citizens take to participate in public life, such as voting, contacting representatives, attending town halls, or volunteering in community efforts.

A person who lives in the area represented by a particular elected official. Elected officials are expected to represent and respond to their constituents.

A direct vote by the entire electorate on a specific question or policy, rather than through elected representatives. Brexit was decided by a referendum.

The act of trying to influence a politician or government official to vote for or against a specific piece of legislation, often done by organized interest groups.

The network of non-governmental organizations, community groups, and individuals that operate between government and the private sector to advocate for public interests.